WildMaven’s World

Astronomy and Astrology are linked at the hip, each constantly being confused and mistaken for each other. Astronomy, in fact, got its start in Astrology. The study of the moon and stars were key elements in figuring out astrologic charts for the planting of crops, sailing of ships, and curing of diseases. While studying the heavens, more objects were spotted and a curiosity grew. What is that object? Why is it in one part of the sky today, but another part later in the evening? The study of Astronomy was born. Early astronomers supplemented their income by practicing Astrology for the wealthy. Any astronomer who scoffs at Astrology is actually forgetting the birthplace of his beloved science.

Today, the term Astronomy is reserved for the scientific study of the Universe. Astrology is the belief that the heavens control our lives. Astrology spans many cultures and can be broken down into Western astrology, Chinese astrology, Jyotish (Vedic astrology) and Kabbalistic astrology. Even skeptics of Astrology agree that certain human rhythms are controlled by the influence of astronomical objects, most notably the Moon. Our internal body clock is controlled by a circadian rhythm, which has ties to the light/dark cycle of our day. Without the daily sun/moon cycle, our bodies would suffer a number of problems including sleep disfunction and mood disorders!

Is Pluto Really a Planet?
Pluto was an accidental find by Clyde Tombaugh as he looked for the next mysterious Planet X. In the early 1900’s, it was thought that a very large planet existed beyond Neptune, which would explain Neptune’s unexpected deviations of motion. (This is actually how Neptune was found in the first place, using erratic motions from Uranus.) Tombaugh found Pluto and quickly deemed it a planet. Unfortunately, Pluto is too small to have been the cause of Neptune’s behaviour. In fact, it turns out that Neptune’s behaviour was the result of miscalculations on the part of the scientists. Pluto was just a lucky find by a determined man.

Pluto’s status as a planet remained set until David Jewitt and J. Luu discovered an object way out in space past Neptune. This object, QB1, was the first of over a hundred objects found that are now called the Kuiper Belt. These objects are very similar to Pluto in composition and orbit. Pluto’s orbit is highly unusual for a planet; it is the only planet that crosses orbits with another planet. Once every 248 years, Pluto crosses the orbit of Neptune, becoming the 8th planet out, rather than the 9th. The size of Pluto also makes it “less than a planet”. In fact, it is smaller than seven of the moons in our solar system. The only difference between Pluto and other members of the Kuiper Belt is its reflectivity.

Scientists today consider Pluto to be just another object in the Kuiper Belt, though it notably is the largest object there. However, future discoveries may find Kuiper Belt objects (KBO’s) that are larger than Pluto. Should those be classified as planets? Or is Pluto’s time as our 9th planet coming to an end? We all grew up learning about the 9 planets. Will the public accept only 8? This almost happened years ago, and it became a media circus. The public loves tiny Pluto. The debate continues…

Last year, Pluto was demoted, though many still refuse to accept it.

Copernicus went to the University of Krakow, where he studied many subjects, including astronomy. Astronomy, however, in those days, was used mainly for navigation at sea, setting holy days, and calculating a person’s horoscope. He completed four years of study, but never earned a degree. His uncle, in charge of young Nicholaus after his father’s death, decided that the child would have a career with the Church, and thus sent Copernicus to the University of Bologna, where he studied Canon law. In his spare time, he also studied Greek, math, and astronomy. He began renting a room from his astronomy professor and even assisted him in his observations of the heavens.
In 1500, Copernicus journeyed to Rome and stayed to lecture the local scholars. Still without a degree, he convinced his uncle, and the Church, to allow him to finish his law degree as well as obtaining education in medicine. Astronomy was considered a big part of medicine, since a person’s health was believed to be influenced by the stars, so Copernicus was allowed to continue his astonomy education as well. He eventually obtained his doctorate in law, but never received one in medicine.

His astronomy study was put on hold for over five years as he floundered here and there as a canon and physician. After the death of his maternal uncle, Copernicus became a canon in the Ermland Chapter at Frauenburg. This gave him a lot of free time to study his growing love of the sky. He wrote a small, hand-written book, which he gave to his friends. This book, the “Little Commentary” spelled out his theories, radical ideas at the time:

1. There is no one centre in the universe.
2. The Earth’s centre is not the centre of the universe.
3. The centre of the universe is near the sun.
4. The distance from the Earth to the sun is imperceptible compared with the distance to the stars.
5. The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
6. The apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun is caused by the Earth revolving round it.
7. The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the motion of the Earth from which one observes.

His formal theories were not published for many years as war and unrest forced Copernicus into service for his country. His manuscript was published only shortly before his death. Controversy raged amongst the scholars, and it was not until the 17th century that his ideas were fully accepted. He received the final copy of his book while on dying in his bed. He died shortly thereafter of a cereberal hemorrhage May 24, 1543.

Sir Isaac Newton
Born in 1642, Isaac Newton was the founder of many brilliant discoveries and formulas. Among them:

* Sunlight can be split into a spectrum.
* Discovery of why planets orbit the sun.
* The three laws of motion.
* The formula for gravity.
* The motion of the tides.

His discoveries helped future scientists figure out the movement of every object in the Universe and detect unknown stars and planets.

Isaac Newton struggled with math at first and almost gave up. Eventually, he fell in love with it, and developed his own theories as he learned. He studied math, astronomy, optics, light and color. The latter was the basis for his first nervous breakdown in 1678 when he got into an arguement about it with the English Jesuits in Liege. As a result, he became almost a hermit for a number of years. When he came out of seclusion, he was again in a scientific frenzy of work, producing more than a man twice his age. This all came to an abrupt stop with his second nervous breakdown in 1693. Theories abound as to the causes of his breakdowns. Everything from personal problems to poisoning from experiments have been mentioned. Today, scientists believe it was undiagnosed depression. Newton took a position at the Royal Mint in 1696, becoming Master in a year. In 1703 he was elected president of the Royal Society and was re-elected each year until his death. During his days as President he became involved in a heated controversy between himself and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz as to which one had invented calculus. Because he was President of the Society, Newton arranged for an “impartial” committee to put an end to the debate.

“Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my best friend is truth.”
-Isaac Newton

Moon Facts:

Who hasn’t gazed up at the Moon and wondered about it. How did it get there, what is it made of, why can’t we ever see the other side? The Moon is about 25 percent the size of Earth, spinning around on its axis once every 720 hours. Because it spins at the same speed it orbits the Earth, we never get to see the other side of the Moon (called its “dark side”). It seems to shine with its own light, but the Moon really doesn’t produce any illumination of its own. What you see is the reflection of sunlight as it bounces off of the Moon’s surface. With a gravity 17 percent of Earth’s, you could jump up 13 feet high (4 meters) or more on the Moon! The craters you see are the result of meteorite impacts that occurred early in the Moon’s history. The dark “seas” are actually lava flows formed by ancient volcanoes. About 4.5 billion years ago, a huge rock (about the size of Mars) smashed into the Earth. The resulting debris eventually formed the Moon.
The Moon has an iron/nickel core, similar to Earth’s, but smaller. The temperature on the Moon can range from -250F to +250F. The lunar atmosphere, what little there is of it, is comprised of Helium, Neon, Hydrogen, Argon, Methane, Ammonia, and Carbon Dioxide. These were measured by the Apollo mission teams during night conditions. Measuring the amounts during daytime was difficult, due to (according to NASA) “heating and outgassing of Apollo surface experiments”. Once in a while, a small moonquake will shake the Moon, causing gas to escape from the fissures that are formed. Some scientists believe we should call the Moon a planet, since it is more like a planet than a Moon. Pluto’s moon, Charon, is also in that same category, and some call Pluto and Charon a “double planet system.” Did you know that there are trees here on Earth that grew from seeds taken on a Moon mission? During the Apollo 14 mission, astronaut Stuart Roosa took a bunch of seeds with him. When the mission was over, the seeds were germinated on Earth and planeted across the country. The trees that grew from them are referred to as “Moon Trees.”

Think the Moon is our only satellite? That may not be true. Scientists have found an asteroid that is possibly orbiting our Earth! They have named this 5 km rock Cruithne, and its orbit takes 770 years. Another fun fact is that the moon is actually egg shaped, with one of its ends pointing at us, so that it appears round.

The Moon is slowly moving away from us, as it steals some of our energy. When it formed, it is estimated that it was only 22,530 km away from the Earth! Today, the Moon is over twenty times that! What will happen to the tides, and the Earth, when the Moon is so far away that it looks like a star to the naked eye?

Aries - The Ram
Fun Facts:

1. Aries contains the galaxies NGC 697, NGC 772, NGC 972, and NGC 1156.
2. In greek mythology, this constellation represents the ram that carried Phrixus and Helle to escape their stepmother Ino. When they reached safety, Phrixus killed the ram (such gratitude!) and hung its fleece on a tree. The fleece turned to gold and became a quest for Jason and the Argonauts.
3. Meteor showers that pass through Aries are the May Arietids, Autumn Arietids, Delta Arietids, Epsilon Arietids, Daytime-Arietids, and the Aries-Triangulids.
4. The brightest star in Aries is Hamal, at a magnitude of 2.0.
5. It is best visible in December.

Cancer - The Crab
Fun Facts
1. Cancer is named after the crab who tried to stop Hercules from defeating the Hydra. The brave little crustacean was squashed for its efforts.
2. In the 1970’s there was an unsuccessful movement to change the name of this constellation, and thus the zodiac sign, since many felt the name Cancer reminded them of the disease process.
3. Cancer hides Praesepe (M44 or The Beehive Cluster) and M67 (one of the oldest clusters, around 10 billion years old).
4. Meteor showers that pass through Cancer include the Delta Cancrids.
5. Its brightest star is Al Tarf, at a magnitude of 3.5.
6. It is best viewed in March.
Cassiopeia - The Queen
This was the second constellation that I learned as a child.

Fun Facts:
1. In 1572, Tycho Brahe observed a supernova in Cassiopeia.
2. Cassiopeia A is the location of the second strongest radio source (after the sun).
3. Cassiopeia literally means “The Queen”. It represent the legendary queen of Ethiopia (the mother of Andromeda).
4. The Persied meteor shower passes through Cassiopeia every year.
5. It’s brightest star, Shedir, is a magnitude 2.23
6. If we were to observe the Sun from Alpha Centauri, it would appear to be in Cassiopeia.

Cassiopeia can be seen year round, usually low in the northern horizon. The best time to view it is in November
Gemini - The Twins
Fun Facts:

1. Gemini is best seen in February.
2. Zeus, the Greek king of the gods, once again seduces a maiden, this time in the form of a swan. From their pairing, two sons are born from an egg. The sons, Castor and Pollux, make up two of the stars of this constellation.
3. In 1930, the planet Pluto was discovered in Gemini.
4. On the western edge of this constellation lies M35, an open cluster of 5th magnitude.
Leo - The Lion
Fun Facts:
1. The legends of Hercules provides us with yet another great constellation. Leo, the lion, is named after the Nemean Lion which Hercules had to kill during his labours.
2. The Egyptians worship the lion because the sun was said to have been in this constellation during the time of the well-needed floods of the Nile.
3. Meteor showers that pass through Leo are the Leonids.
4. Leo’s brightest star is Regulus, at a magnitude 1.4.
5. Leo is best viewed in April.
6. Many galaxies can be found in Leo. Most notably M65, M66, M95, M96.
7. Wolf 359, one of the nearest stars to Earth’s solar system (7.7 light-years), is in Leo.

Orion - The Great Hunter
This was the first constellation I learned. It was easy to spot the three stars in a row that make up Orion’s belt. As an adult, I learned that Orion also holds a nebula, the fuzzy object close to the hunter’s “sword”.
Fun Facts:
1. Orion stands next to Canis Major and Canis Minor, his two hunting dogs.
2. He is also near Taurus the Bull (his enemy) and Lepus the Hare, (his prey).
3. Meteor showers that pass through Orion include the Orionids and the Chi Orionids.
4. Orion’s brightest star is Rigel, with a magnitude of 0.12.
5. At Orion’s right shoulder, sits Betelgeuse, a red star, larger than the orbit of Venus. Betelgeuse means “armpit” (really!!). The ancient Sumerians thought Orion looked more like a sheep, and Betelgeuse fell at the sheep’s armpit.
6. Bellatrix (”warrior woman”) is at Orion’s left shoulder.
7. The stars Alnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka form his belt.
8. His right knee is Saiph.
9. The large white star at his left knee is Rigel, one of the brightest stars in the sky.

Orion is very useful when trying to locate other constellations. Travel straight along his shoulders and see what you run into? Try the same thing from his belt.

Taurus - The Bull
Fun Facts:

1. Taurus holds one of the few first magnitude stars, Aldebaran, a fiery red star, which sits in the middle of this constellation.
2. Just to the east you’ll find the beautiful Pleiades.
3. The Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant, resides in Taurus. The explosion was seen on July 4, 1054. It was so bright it could be seen during the daytime! Chinese texts and Native American pottery depict the event.
4. Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods, loved to change form to seduce lovely maidens. Taurus, the bull, is the form he took when he wooed Europa, a Phoenician princess.
The Pleiades
Located in the constellation Taurus, the Pleiades are an open cluster of luminous blue and white stars.
Fun Facts:
1. The Vikings considered them to be the goddess Freya’s hens.
2. Native Americans tested their vision by the number of stars they could see in the cluster. In our polluted cities, you are lucky if you can see five or six, but in a dark site you’ll see about 10. In reality, the Pleiades contain hundreds of stars, most too faint to see with the naked eye.
3. In Japan, they are knows as the Subaru. In fact, the Subaru car company uses the Pleiades as their logo.
4. The cluster is only expected to survive another 250 million years and is one of the younger clusters at an age of 100 million years.

Virgo - The Virgin
Fun Facts:

1. Virgo is the largest constellation.
2. Spica, the most prominent star in Virgo, represents an ear of wheat in the goddess’s hand.
3. The star, 70 Virginis, located in Virgo, is an extrasolar planetary system with one confirmed planet. This planet is 6.6 times the mass of Jupiter!
4. This constellation is full of galaxies, hence the name The Virgo Cluster: M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, and M90.
5. The mythology of Virgo is uncertain. Every prominent goddess has been associated with this constellation.
6. Meteor showers that pass through Virgo are: Virginids and the Mu Virginids
7. Virgo is best seen during May

Here in the U.S., we tend to be very “Americancentric”, which isn’t fair to the countries who have made great strides before us. Below, I will only show achievements that are the first of their kind, not, for example, the “first U.S. landing”.

October 4, 1957 - Sputnik 1 (U.S.S.R.) launches. Status: success.
November 3, 1957 - Sputnik 2 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first dog in space, Laika. The poor pooch died only hours into the trip from stress and overheating. Status: success.
January 31, 1958 - Explorer 1 (U.S.). Achievement: Discovered Earth’s radiation belt.
March 5, 1958 - Explorer 2 (U.S.) Achievement: None. Failed to achieve orbit.
March 17, 1958 - Vanguard 1 satellite (U.S.) Achievement: transmitted for 3 years.
May 15, 1958 - Sputnik 3 (U.S.S.R.)
October 11, 1958 - Pioneer 1 (U.S.) Achievement: launched the IGY space probe.
January 2, 1959 - Luna 1 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first solar satellite
March 3, 1959 - Pioneer 4 (U.S.)
September 12, 1959 - Luna 2 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first man-made object on the moon
October 4, 1959 - Luna 3 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: obtained photos of the far side of the moon
April 1, 1960 - Tiros 1 (U.S.) Achievement: First weather satellite.
August 18, 1960 - Discoverer XIV (U.S.) spy satellite
April 12, 1961 - Vostok 1 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: Yuri A. Gargarin becomes the first man in space.
May 5, 1961 - Mercury Freedom 7 (U.S.)
August 6, 1961 - Vostok 2 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first day-long space flight.
February 20, 1962 - Mercury Friendship 7 (U.S.)
May 24, 1962 - Mercury Aurora 7 (U.S.)
July 10, 1962 - Telstar 1 (U.S.) Achievement: satellite transmits first transatlantic telecast.
December 14, 1962 - U.S. Mariner 2 (U.S.) Achievement: first to fly past Venus.
June 16, 1963 - Vostok 6 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: Valentia Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space (orbits 48 times).
July 31, 1964 - U.S. Ranger 7 (U.S.) Achievement: first close-range Moon photos.
March 8, 1965 - Soviet Voskhod 2 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: Alexei A. Leonov becomes the first to walk in space.
March 23, 1965 - Gemini 3 (U.S.)
March 24, 1965 - Ranger 9 (U.S.) Achievement: spectacular Moon photos.
June 3, 1965 - Gemini 4 (U.S.)
July 14, 1965 - Mariner 4 (U.S.) Achievement: first close-range images about Mars.
November 16, 1965 - Venus 3 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first craft to impact Venus
December 4, 1965 - Gemini 7 (U.S.) Achievement: Makes 206 Earth orbits
December 15, 1965 - Gemini 6 and 7: Achievement: Gemini 6 rendezvous with Gemini 7.
February 3, 1966 - Luna 9, (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first spacecraft to “soft-land” on the Moon.
March 1, 1966 - Venera 3 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first spacecraft to reach another planet (Venus).
March, 1966 - Luna 10 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first spacecraft to orbit the Moon.
August 14, 1966 - Lunar Orbiter 1 (U.S.) Achievement: enters first picture of the Earth from the Moon.
April 23, 1967 - Soyuz 1 (U.S.S.R.) Failure: Vladimir M. Komarov becomes the first human fatality.
October 18, 1967 - Venera 4 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: sends data about the composition of Venus.
September 15, 1968 - Zond 5 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first spacecraft to orbit the Moon and return.
October 11, 1968 - Apollo 7 (U.S.) Achievement: one Earth orbit.
December 21, 1968 - Apollo 8 (U.S.) Achievement: first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon.
January, 1969 - Soyuz 4 and 5 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: spaceship docking, transfer Cosmonauts between ships.
July 20, 1969 - Apollo 11 (U.S.) Achievement: Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr. become the first to make a soft landing and walk on the Moon.
July 31, 1969 - Mariner 6 (U.S.) Achievement: high-resolution images of
August 5, 1969 - Mariner 7 (U.S.) Achievement: more high-res images of Mars
April 11, 1970 - Apollo 13 (U.S.) Failure: an explosion in the oxygen tanks forces the crew, James A. Lovell, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr. and Fred W. Haise, Jr., to return.
September 12, 1970 - Luna 16 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first lunar soil samples
November 17, 1970 - Luna 17 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first automatic robot to travel on the Moon
December 15, 1970 - Venera 7 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first probe to soft-land on Venus.
January 31, 1971 - Apollo 14 (U.S.) Achievement: first use of a two-wheeled cart to collect samples. Shepard becomes the first man to hit a golf ball on the Moon.
April 19, 1971 - Salyut 1 space station (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first space station.
May 30, 1971 - Mariner 9 (U.S.) Achievement: first spacecraft to survey Mars from orbit.
June 6, 1971 - Soyuz 11 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: Cosmonauts G.T. Dobrovolsky, V.N. Volkov, and V.I. Patsayev enter Salyut 1 and which becomes the first manned station. Failure: All die, however, when they try to return to Earth.
July 30, 1971 - Apollo 15 (U.S.) Achievement: first moon rover.
November 13, 1971 - Mariner 9 (U.S.) Achievement: first spacecraft to orbit Mars.
March 2, 1972 - Pioneer 10 (U.S.) Achievement: first close-up images of Jupiter.
July 15, 1972 - Pioneer 10 (U.S.) Achievement: first to travel through the asteroid belt.
April 5, 1973 - Pioneer 11 (U.S.) Achievement: discovers new rings on Saturn.
May 14, 1973 - Skylab (U.S.)
May 25, 1973 - Skylab 2 (U.S.) Achievement: repairs damage to Skylab.
November 3, 1973 - Mariner 10 (U.S.) Achievement: first dual-planet mission. Photographs Venus and Mercury.
June 24, 1974 - Salyut 3 (U.S.S.R.) space station (military)
December 26, 1974 - Salyut 4 (U.S.S.R.) space station (civilian
July, 1975 - Apollo 18 (U.S.) and Soyuz 19 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first international spacecraft rendezvous.
October, 1975 - Venera 9 and 10 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first pictures of Venus.
June 22, 1976 - Salyut 5 (U.S.S.R.) space station (military)
July 20, 1976 - Viking 1 (U.S.)
September 3, 1976 - Viking 2 (U.S.) Achievement: discovery of water frost on Mars.
August 1977 - Voyagers 1 and 2 (U.S.) Mission: Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980.
September 29, 1977 - Salyut 6 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: First international crew
September 1, 1979 - Pioneer 11 (U.S.) Achievement: first close-up photographs of Saturn.
April 12, 1981 - Space Shuttle Columbia (U.S.)
March 1, 1982 - Venera 13 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first soil samples of Venus.
April 19, 1982 - Salyut 7 (U.S.S.R.) space station.
April 4, 1983 - Space shuttle Challenger (U.S.)
October 10, 1983 - Venera 15 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: first high-res images of the Venus polar area.
November 28, 1983 - Space shuttle Columbia (U.S.) Achievement: puts Spacelab-1 into orbit.
February 3, 1984 - Space shuttle Challenger STS-14B (U.S.) Bruce McCandless becomes the first to take an untethered space walk in space.
July 17, 1984 - Soyuz-T 12 (U.S.S.R.) Achievement: Svetlana Savitskaya becomes the first woman to walk in space.
August 30, 1984 - Space shuttle Discovery (U.S.) Achievement: maiden voyage
October 5, 1984 - Space Shuttle Challenger STS-41G (U.S.) Achievement: first crew with two women aboard
December, 1984 - Vega 1 and 2 (U.S.S.R./International) Achievement: dropped probes to test the atmosphere on Venus.
January 8, 1985 - The Sakigake probe (Japan) Achievement: first interplanetary probe.
April 29, 1985 - Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51B (U.S.) Achievement: carries Spacelab-3 into orbit.
July 2, 1985 - Giotto spacecraft (European Space Agency - ESA) Mission: comet exploration.
October 3, 1985 - Space Shuttle Atlantis (U.S.) Achievement: maiden voyage.
October 1985 - Spacelab D1 Achievement: the first joint German/ESA mission
January 28, 1986 - Space shuttle Challenger STS-51L (U.S.) Failure: explodes shortly after liftoff, killing all onboard.

After the Challenger disaster, many started to question the necessity of the space program. Years later, the space program still struggles to regain the glory of the past.

A constellation is a group of stars related to each other in a visible configuration. Humans find shapes in all kinds of things (clouds, for instance), so it’s not surprising that we have picked out some shapes in the night sky. Long ago, it was thought that the gods resided up there, and a lot of the constellations have a basis in mythology. However, if you were anyplace other than the Earth, the constellations would not look the same, since we are viewing them on a 2D plane, whereas the stars are in a 3D position. Also, different cultures have different constellations. Orion, for instance, was thought by the Sumarians to be a sheep, not a man.

The Big Dipper is called an asterism, which means it is not an official constellation. In fact, it is just a part of the constellation Ursa Major. The same goes for The Teapot in Sagettarius.

According to the International Astronomical Union, there are 88 official constellations. The first 12 on the list are the 12 signs of the Zodiac:

Aries, the ram
Taurus, the bull
Gemini, the twins
Cancer, the crab
Leo, the lion
Virgo, the virgin
Libra, the scales
Scorpius (also called Scorpio), the scorpion
Sagittarius, the archer
Capricornus (also called Capricorn), the sea goat
Aquarius, the water carrier
Pisces, the fish

Next, are the constellations named by Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer:

Andromeda
Aquila, the eagle
Ara, the altar
Argo Navis, the ship of the argonauts, since divided into Carina, Puppis and Vela
Auriga, the charioteer
Boötes, the herdsman
Canis Major, the greater dog
Canis Minor, the lesser dog
Cassiopeia, the Queen
Centaurus, the centaur
Cepheus
Cetus, the whale
Corona Australis, the southern crown
Corona Borealis, the northern crown
Corvus, the raven
Crater, the cup
Cygnus, the swan
Delphinus, the dolphin
Draco, the dragon
Equuleus, the little horse
Eridanus, the river
Hercules, the hero
Hydra, the sea monster
Lepus, the hare
Lupus, the wolf
Lyra, the lyre
Ophiuchus, the serpent-bearer
Orion, the hunter
Pegasus, the winged horse
Perseus
Piscis Austrinus, the southern fish
Sagitta, the arrow
Serpens, the serpent
Triangulum, the triangle
Ursa Major, the greater bear
Ursa Minor, the lesser bear

As European explores journeyed to areas where they could see the southern sky, they added to the list even more. Also, the gaps between the Ptolemy and the Greek sky were filled:

Antlia, the pump
Apus, the bird of paradise
Caelum, the chisel
Camelopardalis, the giraffe
Canes Venatici, the hunting dogs
Chamaeleon, the lizard
Circinus, the drawing compasses
Columba, the dove
Coma Berenices (traditional asterism), Berenice’s hair
Crux, the cross
Dorado, the swordfish
Fornax, the furnace
Grus, the crane
Horologium, the clock
Hydrus, the water snake
Indus, the Indian
Lacerta, the lizard
Leo Minor, the lesser lion
Lynx, the wild cat
Mensa, (originally Mons Mensae) table mountain
Microscopium, the microscope
Monoceros, the unicorn
Musca, the fly
Norma, the square
Octans, the octant
Pavo, the peacock
Phoenix, the flame bird of myth
Pictor, (originally Equuleus Pictoris) the painter’s easel
Pyxis, the compass
Reticulum, the reticle
Sculptor, the artistic man
Scutum, the shield
Sextans, the sextant
Telescopium, the telescope
Triangulum Australe, the southern triangle
Tucana, the toucan
Volans (originally Piscis Volans) the flying fish
Vulpecula (originally Vulpecula Cum Ansere) the fox with the goose

Finally, the asterisms, the group of stars that didn’t make the cut. Usually it is because they are a part of an already named constellation:

Big Dipper in Ursa Major
Little Dipper in Ursa Minor
Teapot in Sagittarius
Orion’s belt
Summer Triangle (Deneb, Altair, and Vega, or ? Cygni, Aquilae, and Lyrae)
Great Square of Pegasus
Urn in Aquarius
Sickle in Leo
Coma Berenices, once an asterism, is now officially a constellation

Somewhere between a comet and an asteroid in composition, Centaurs are objects whose orbits around the Sun cause them to pass by one of our planets, usually Jupiter or Neptune. Very unstable, due to their interactions with the large planets, their orbits can change with every pass. Chiron, once classified as an asteroid, was reclassified as a Centaur, but now may also be considered to be a comet since the discovery that it has a small coma. Chiron may one day crash into a planet, or be totally ejected out of our solar system. Centaurs most likely originated from the Kuiper belt.

A sub-classification, Red Centaurs, are Centaurs that have an unusual red coloring, possibly from organic surface particles. Once such Red Centaur is Pholus, which orbits from Saturn to past Neptune.

The name Centaur comes from the mythological half-man, half-horse figure.

There are currently nine Centaurs orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune, but many more are probably just waiting to be discovered. Should one of these large objects become a comet and pass into Earth’s orbit, its debris trail could have a dramatic impact on the climate and pose a danger to our civilization.

Aurorae (plural of aurora) occur when the Sun emits charged particles which are then trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field. Those particles interact with upper atmosphere atoms, smashing together, which excites molecules of gas. Energy is radiated in the form of the beautiful colors you see when observing an aurora. Did you know that each individual sees an aurora differently depending on their eyesight?

Most aurorae are green (from oxygen atoms) or red (nitrogen), though sometimes violet can also be seen (caused when the rays extend high up and are hit by direct sunlight).

If you live in a Southern region, chances are poor that you’ll get to see an aurora. I live in Las Vegas, so unless I make a trek northward, I’m not seeing one anytime soon.

Aurorae come in different forms, including arcs, bands, coronas, glows, patches, rays, and veils. It is no coincidence that aurora activity peaks after a solar flare. When the sun is active, expect to see more aurora. Why does the aurora change and move? It all depends on solar wind and the Earth’s magnetic field.

Want to photograph an aurora? If so, use fast film (ISO 400). An aurora changes rapidly and slow film just wouldn’t cut it. A recommended setting would be 30 seconds at f/1.8 but experiment with many different settings. Write down what you do so that you can repeat it in the future. If you take a great aurora shot, I’d love to see it! More information on photographing aurora can be found if you visit Dick Hutchinson’s SHOOTING THE AURORA BOREALIS website. http://www.ptialaska.net/~hutch/aurora.html

Folklore is full of aurora tales. In Finland, they call it revontulet which means foxfire (there is an old tale about a fox who started fires with his tail).

Ever wonder what an aurora looks like from space? The Paintings in the Sky http://www.exploratorium.edu/learning_studio/auroras/fromspace.html website has some amazing images taken from the space shuttle.

When you see an aurora, you lose all rational thought as to the cause of the event. The beauty of that moving sky captures you and holds you…as you hold your breath, not wanting it to end.