WildMaven’s World

Astronomy and Astrology are linked at the hip, each constantly being confused and mistaken for each other. Astronomy, in fact, got its start in Astrology. The study of the moon and stars were key elements in figuring out astrologic charts for the planting of crops, sailing of ships, and curing of diseases. While studying the heavens, more objects were spotted and a curiosity grew. What is that object? Why is it in one part of the sky today, but another part later in the evening? The study of Astronomy was born. Early astronomers supplemented their income by practicing Astrology for the wealthy. Any astronomer who scoffs at Astrology is actually forgetting the birthplace of his beloved science.

Today, the term Astronomy is reserved for the scientific study of the Universe. Astrology is the belief that the heavens control our lives. Astrology spans many cultures and can be broken down into Western astrology, Chinese astrology, Jyotish (Vedic astrology) and Kabbalistic astrology. Even skeptics of Astrology agree that certain human rhythms are controlled by the influence of astronomical objects, most notably the Moon. Our internal body clock is controlled by a circadian rhythm, which has ties to the light/dark cycle of our day. Without the daily sun/moon cycle, our bodies would suffer a number of problems including sleep disfunction and mood disorders!

Aries - The Ram
Fun Facts:

1. Aries contains the galaxies NGC 697, NGC 772, NGC 972, and NGC 1156.
2. In greek mythology, this constellation represents the ram that carried Phrixus and Helle to escape their stepmother Ino. When they reached safety, Phrixus killed the ram (such gratitude!) and hung its fleece on a tree. The fleece turned to gold and became a quest for Jason and the Argonauts.
3. Meteor showers that pass through Aries are the May Arietids, Autumn Arietids, Delta Arietids, Epsilon Arietids, Daytime-Arietids, and the Aries-Triangulids.
4. The brightest star in Aries is Hamal, at a magnitude of 2.0.
5. It is best visible in December.

Cancer - The Crab
Fun Facts
1. Cancer is named after the crab who tried to stop Hercules from defeating the Hydra. The brave little crustacean was squashed for its efforts.
2. In the 1970’s there was an unsuccessful movement to change the name of this constellation, and thus the zodiac sign, since many felt the name Cancer reminded them of the disease process.
3. Cancer hides Praesepe (M44 or The Beehive Cluster) and M67 (one of the oldest clusters, around 10 billion years old).
4. Meteor showers that pass through Cancer include the Delta Cancrids.
5. Its brightest star is Al Tarf, at a magnitude of 3.5.
6. It is best viewed in March.
Cassiopeia - The Queen
This was the second constellation that I learned as a child.

Fun Facts:
1. In 1572, Tycho Brahe observed a supernova in Cassiopeia.
2. Cassiopeia A is the location of the second strongest radio source (after the sun).
3. Cassiopeia literally means “The Queen”. It represent the legendary queen of Ethiopia (the mother of Andromeda).
4. The Persied meteor shower passes through Cassiopeia every year.
5. It’s brightest star, Shedir, is a magnitude 2.23
6. If we were to observe the Sun from Alpha Centauri, it would appear to be in Cassiopeia.

Cassiopeia can be seen year round, usually low in the northern horizon. The best time to view it is in November
Gemini - The Twins
Fun Facts:

1. Gemini is best seen in February.
2. Zeus, the Greek king of the gods, once again seduces a maiden, this time in the form of a swan. From their pairing, two sons are born from an egg. The sons, Castor and Pollux, make up two of the stars of this constellation.
3. In 1930, the planet Pluto was discovered in Gemini.
4. On the western edge of this constellation lies M35, an open cluster of 5th magnitude.
Leo - The Lion
Fun Facts:
1. The legends of Hercules provides us with yet another great constellation. Leo, the lion, is named after the Nemean Lion which Hercules had to kill during his labours.
2. The Egyptians worship the lion because the sun was said to have been in this constellation during the time of the well-needed floods of the Nile.
3. Meteor showers that pass through Leo are the Leonids.
4. Leo’s brightest star is Regulus, at a magnitude 1.4.
5. Leo is best viewed in April.
6. Many galaxies can be found in Leo. Most notably M65, M66, M95, M96.
7. Wolf 359, one of the nearest stars to Earth’s solar system (7.7 light-years), is in Leo.

Orion - The Great Hunter
This was the first constellation I learned. It was easy to spot the three stars in a row that make up Orion’s belt. As an adult, I learned that Orion also holds a nebula, the fuzzy object close to the hunter’s “sword”.
Fun Facts:
1. Orion stands next to Canis Major and Canis Minor, his two hunting dogs.
2. He is also near Taurus the Bull (his enemy) and Lepus the Hare, (his prey).
3. Meteor showers that pass through Orion include the Orionids and the Chi Orionids.
4. Orion’s brightest star is Rigel, with a magnitude of 0.12.
5. At Orion’s right shoulder, sits Betelgeuse, a red star, larger than the orbit of Venus. Betelgeuse means “armpit” (really!!). The ancient Sumerians thought Orion looked more like a sheep, and Betelgeuse fell at the sheep’s armpit.
6. Bellatrix (”warrior woman”) is at Orion’s left shoulder.
7. The stars Alnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka form his belt.
8. His right knee is Saiph.
9. The large white star at his left knee is Rigel, one of the brightest stars in the sky.

Orion is very useful when trying to locate other constellations. Travel straight along his shoulders and see what you run into? Try the same thing from his belt.

Taurus - The Bull
Fun Facts:

1. Taurus holds one of the few first magnitude stars, Aldebaran, a fiery red star, which sits in the middle of this constellation.
2. Just to the east you’ll find the beautiful Pleiades.
3. The Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant, resides in Taurus. The explosion was seen on July 4, 1054. It was so bright it could be seen during the daytime! Chinese texts and Native American pottery depict the event.
4. Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods, loved to change form to seduce lovely maidens. Taurus, the bull, is the form he took when he wooed Europa, a Phoenician princess.
The Pleiades
Located in the constellation Taurus, the Pleiades are an open cluster of luminous blue and white stars.
Fun Facts:
1. The Vikings considered them to be the goddess Freya’s hens.
2. Native Americans tested their vision by the number of stars they could see in the cluster. In our polluted cities, you are lucky if you can see five or six, but in a dark site you’ll see about 10. In reality, the Pleiades contain hundreds of stars, most too faint to see with the naked eye.
3. In Japan, they are knows as the Subaru. In fact, the Subaru car company uses the Pleiades as their logo.
4. The cluster is only expected to survive another 250 million years and is one of the younger clusters at an age of 100 million years.

Virgo - The Virgin
Fun Facts:

1. Virgo is the largest constellation.
2. Spica, the most prominent star in Virgo, represents an ear of wheat in the goddess’s hand.
3. The star, 70 Virginis, located in Virgo, is an extrasolar planetary system with one confirmed planet. This planet is 6.6 times the mass of Jupiter!
4. This constellation is full of galaxies, hence the name The Virgo Cluster: M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, and M90.
5. The mythology of Virgo is uncertain. Every prominent goddess has been associated with this constellation.
6. Meteor showers that pass through Virgo are: Virginids and the Mu Virginids
7. Virgo is best seen during May

A constellation is a group of stars related to each other in a visible configuration. Humans find shapes in all kinds of things (clouds, for instance), so it’s not surprising that we have picked out some shapes in the night sky. Long ago, it was thought that the gods resided up there, and a lot of the constellations have a basis in mythology. However, if you were anyplace other than the Earth, the constellations would not look the same, since we are viewing them on a 2D plane, whereas the stars are in a 3D position. Also, different cultures have different constellations. Orion, for instance, was thought by the Sumarians to be a sheep, not a man.

The Big Dipper is called an asterism, which means it is not an official constellation. In fact, it is just a part of the constellation Ursa Major. The same goes for The Teapot in Sagettarius.

According to the International Astronomical Union, there are 88 official constellations. The first 12 on the list are the 12 signs of the Zodiac:

Aries, the ram
Taurus, the bull
Gemini, the twins
Cancer, the crab
Leo, the lion
Virgo, the virgin
Libra, the scales
Scorpius (also called Scorpio), the scorpion
Sagittarius, the archer
Capricornus (also called Capricorn), the sea goat
Aquarius, the water carrier
Pisces, the fish

Next, are the constellations named by Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer:

Andromeda
Aquila, the eagle
Ara, the altar
Argo Navis, the ship of the argonauts, since divided into Carina, Puppis and Vela
Auriga, the charioteer
Boötes, the herdsman
Canis Major, the greater dog
Canis Minor, the lesser dog
Cassiopeia, the Queen
Centaurus, the centaur
Cepheus
Cetus, the whale
Corona Australis, the southern crown
Corona Borealis, the northern crown
Corvus, the raven
Crater, the cup
Cygnus, the swan
Delphinus, the dolphin
Draco, the dragon
Equuleus, the little horse
Eridanus, the river
Hercules, the hero
Hydra, the sea monster
Lepus, the hare
Lupus, the wolf
Lyra, the lyre
Ophiuchus, the serpent-bearer
Orion, the hunter
Pegasus, the winged horse
Perseus
Piscis Austrinus, the southern fish
Sagitta, the arrow
Serpens, the serpent
Triangulum, the triangle
Ursa Major, the greater bear
Ursa Minor, the lesser bear

As European explores journeyed to areas where they could see the southern sky, they added to the list even more. Also, the gaps between the Ptolemy and the Greek sky were filled:

Antlia, the pump
Apus, the bird of paradise
Caelum, the chisel
Camelopardalis, the giraffe
Canes Venatici, the hunting dogs
Chamaeleon, the lizard
Circinus, the drawing compasses
Columba, the dove
Coma Berenices (traditional asterism), Berenice’s hair
Crux, the cross
Dorado, the swordfish
Fornax, the furnace
Grus, the crane
Horologium, the clock
Hydrus, the water snake
Indus, the Indian
Lacerta, the lizard
Leo Minor, the lesser lion
Lynx, the wild cat
Mensa, (originally Mons Mensae) table mountain
Microscopium, the microscope
Monoceros, the unicorn
Musca, the fly
Norma, the square
Octans, the octant
Pavo, the peacock
Phoenix, the flame bird of myth
Pictor, (originally Equuleus Pictoris) the painter’s easel
Pyxis, the compass
Reticulum, the reticle
Sculptor, the artistic man
Scutum, the shield
Sextans, the sextant
Telescopium, the telescope
Triangulum Australe, the southern triangle
Tucana, the toucan
Volans (originally Piscis Volans) the flying fish
Vulpecula (originally Vulpecula Cum Ansere) the fox with the goose

Finally, the asterisms, the group of stars that didn’t make the cut. Usually it is because they are a part of an already named constellation:

Big Dipper in Ursa Major
Little Dipper in Ursa Minor
Teapot in Sagittarius
Orion’s belt
Summer Triangle (Deneb, Altair, and Vega, or ? Cygni, Aquilae, and Lyrae)
Great Square of Pegasus
Urn in Aquarius
Sickle in Leo
Coma Berenices, once an asterism, is now officially a constellation

Somewhere between a comet and an asteroid in composition, Centaurs are objects whose orbits around the Sun cause them to pass by one of our planets, usually Jupiter or Neptune. Very unstable, due to their interactions with the large planets, their orbits can change with every pass. Chiron, once classified as an asteroid, was reclassified as a Centaur, but now may also be considered to be a comet since the discovery that it has a small coma. Chiron may one day crash into a planet, or be totally ejected out of our solar system. Centaurs most likely originated from the Kuiper belt.

A sub-classification, Red Centaurs, are Centaurs that have an unusual red coloring, possibly from organic surface particles. Once such Red Centaur is Pholus, which orbits from Saturn to past Neptune.

The name Centaur comes from the mythological half-man, half-horse figure.

There are currently nine Centaurs orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune, but many more are probably just waiting to be discovered. Should one of these large objects become a comet and pass into Earth’s orbit, its debris trail could have a dramatic impact on the climate and pose a danger to our civilization.

Aurorae (plural of aurora) occur when the Sun emits charged particles which are then trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field. Those particles interact with upper atmosphere atoms, smashing together, which excites molecules of gas. Energy is radiated in the form of the beautiful colors you see when observing an aurora. Did you know that each individual sees an aurora differently depending on their eyesight?

Most aurorae are green (from oxygen atoms) or red (nitrogen), though sometimes violet can also be seen (caused when the rays extend high up and are hit by direct sunlight).

If you live in a Southern region, chances are poor that you’ll get to see an aurora. I live in Las Vegas, so unless I make a trek northward, I’m not seeing one anytime soon.

Aurorae come in different forms, including arcs, bands, coronas, glows, patches, rays, and veils. It is no coincidence that aurora activity peaks after a solar flare. When the sun is active, expect to see more aurora. Why does the aurora change and move? It all depends on solar wind and the Earth’s magnetic field.

Want to photograph an aurora? If so, use fast film (ISO 400). An aurora changes rapidly and slow film just wouldn’t cut it. A recommended setting would be 30 seconds at f/1.8 but experiment with many different settings. Write down what you do so that you can repeat it in the future. If you take a great aurora shot, I’d love to see it! More information on photographing aurora can be found if you visit Dick Hutchinson’s SHOOTING THE AURORA BOREALIS website. http://www.ptialaska.net/~hutch/aurora.html

Folklore is full of aurora tales. In Finland, they call it revontulet which means foxfire (there is an old tale about a fox who started fires with his tail).

Ever wonder what an aurora looks like from space? The Paintings in the Sky http://www.exploratorium.edu/learning_studio/auroras/fromspace.html website has some amazing images taken from the space shuttle.

When you see an aurora, you lose all rational thought as to the cause of the event. The beauty of that moving sky captures you and holds you…as you hold your breath, not wanting it to end.

Important Dates in the History of Astronomy
(most early years are approximate)

4000 B.C. - The oldest astronomical observation ever recorded (Egypt and Central America)
3000 B.C. - The first written materials on astronomy (Egypt, China, Mesopotamia and Central America)
2697 B.C. - The oldest preserved relation on the Sun eclipse (China)
2000 B.C. - The first solar-lunar calendars in Egypt and Mesopotamia
2000 B.C. - Stonehenge Sanctuary (England)
2000 B.C. - Constellations first drawn up by the ancient astronomers
6th Century B.C. - Pythagoras and Thales of Miletus speculate that the Earth is a sphere.
4th century B.C. - Geocentric model of the universe originated
585 B.C. - May 28th, Thales predicts the solar eclipse
490 B.C. - September 9th, Date of the full moon that prohibited Sparta from helping Athens battle the Persians in the battle of Marathon
330 B.C. - Aristotle’s “On Heavens”
280 B.C. - Aristrachus of Samos suggests that the Earth revolves about the Sun (heliocentric concept of the Universe). He also provides the first estimations on Earth-Sun distance
240 B.C. - Eratosthenes calculates the size of the Earth, Sun, and Moon
130 B.C. - Hipparchus developes the first star catalog and charts
45 B.C. - The introduction of Julian calendar to the Roman Empire upon the advice of the Greek astronomer Sosigenes
140 - Ptolemy suggests the geocentric theory of the Universe
813 - Al Mamon founds the Bagdad school of astronomy.
903 - Al-Sufi draws up his star catalogue
1054 - Chinese astronomers observe supernova in Taurus. The remnants of this supernova will become known as M1, the Crab Nebula
1543 - Copernicus publishes “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” which provides mathematical evidence for the heliocentric theory of the Universe
1572 - Tycho Brahe discoveres a supernova in the constellation Cassiopeia
1576 - Tycho Brahe founds the observatory at Uraniborg
1582 - October 15, Pope Gregory XIII introduces the Gregorian calendar.
1595 - David Fabricius discovers the long-period variable star in the constellation Cetus, named Mira Ceti.
1600 - February 17, Giordano Bruno is charged with blasphemy, immoral conduct, and heresy for challenging the origin and structure of the universe and is burned at the stake in Campo dei Fiori
1603 - Johann Bayer publishes his star catalogue, “Uranometria”. He introduces the “Bayer designation system” of assigning Greek letters to stars.
1604 - Kepler discovers supernova in Ophiuchus.
1608 - Lippershey invents the first telescope.
1609 - Galileo first uses the telescope for astronomical purposes and discovers four Jovian moons, the Moon craters, and the Milky Way.
1609 - The first two of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motions are announced.
1611 - Galileo, Scheiner, and Fabricius observe sunspots.
1612 - Peiresc discovers the Orion Nebula (M42).
1619 - Kepler publishes the “Third Law of Planetary Motion” in his “Harmonice Mundi” (Harmony of the World).
1631 - Kepler predicts the Transit of Mercury which is observed by Gassendi.
1632 - Galileo publishes his “Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems”
1633 - Galileo is forced to recant his theories during the Inquisition or face death.
1639 - Jeremiah Horrocks observes the transit of Venus
1647 - Hevelius publishes the map of the Moon.
1656 - Huyghens discovers the nature of Saturns rings and Titan
1656 - Foundation of the Copenhagen Observatory.
1659 - Huyghen observes markings on the planet Mars.
1666 - Cassini observes the polar caps on Mars.
1668 - Newton builds the first reflecting telescope.
1669 - Montanari discovers the variable nature of Algol.
1671 - Foundation of Paris Observatory.
1675 - Foundation of Greenwich Observatory.
1675 - Romer measures the velocity of light.
1675 - Cassini discovers the main division in Saturn’s rings.
1683 - Cassini observes the zodiacal light.
1687 - Sir Issac Newton publishes his revolutionary “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” establishing the theory of universal gravition
1705 - Halley predicts the return of Halley’s Comet in 1758.
1725 - Flamsteed publishes his star catalogue. He introduces star numbering in each constellation.
1728 - Halley discovers star motion.
1728 - James Bradley proposes the theory of the aberration of the fixed stars, including the aberration of light.
1729 - Chester More Hall proposes the principle of the achromatic refractor.
1744 - The six-tailed Cheseaux comet is observed.
1750 - Thomas Wright speculates about the origin of the solar system. As do we all.
1755 - Immanuel Kant proposes the hypothesis of the origin of celestial bodies
1758 - Palitzsch observes Halley’s comet return previously predicted (see 1705).
1761 - Lomonosov discovers the atmosphere of Venus.
1767 - The foundation of the Nautical Almanac.
1781 - Charles Messier, searching for the comets, discovers a bunch of deep sky objects (galaxies, nebula, and star clusters) which he compiles in his catalogue.
1781 - Herschel discovers Uranus.
1784 - Goodricke discovers the variable nature of Delta Cephei.
1789 - Herschel erected a telescope at Slough with a 48-in (1.22-m) mirror and a focal length of 40 ft (12.2 m). Using it, he resolved stars in different nebulas.
1796 - Laplace proposes the “Nebular Hypothesis” of the origin of the solar system based on the theory of stellar evolution.
1801 - Piazzi discovers the first planetoid, Ceres.
1802 - Herschel announces the discovery of binary star systems.
1802 - Wollaston observes dark lines in the solar spectrum.
1803 - Fall of meteorites at L’Aigle. In the early afternoon, thousands of meteorites rained down upon the small town. Luckily, no one was hurt. At the time, the very existence of meteors was hotly debated. This put to rest those thoughts.
1803 - The explanation of the nature of meteorites is established.
1811 - Olber proposes the theory of comet tails.
1814 - Fraunhofer provides description of the solar spectrum.
1818 - Pons discovers the predicted return of Encke’s Comet.
1826 - Discovery of Biela’s Comet
1833 - The Leonids great meteor shower.
1834 - Bessel infers that the irregularity of proper motion of Sirius is due to the presence of its invisible companion.
1837 - Beer and Madler publish the first accurate map of the moon.
1838 - Bessel determines the distance of star, 61 Cygni. This was the first determination of star distance.
1839 - Draper takes the first photograph of the Moon.
1842 - Discovery of Doppler’s Principle
1843 - Schwabe describes the sunspot cycle.
1845 - Observation of the breakup of Biela’s Comet.
1846 - Johann Gottfried Galle discovers the planet Neptune. It is based on its position calculated by the French astronomer Joseph Leverrier.
1851 - Foucault provides evidence for the rotation movement of the Earth by suspending a pendulum on a long wire from the dome of the Pantheon in Paris.
1858 - Appearance of Donati’s Comet.
1859 - Kirchoff provides the interpretation of the dark lines in the star spectra.
1859 - Argelander publishes “Bonner Durchmusterung” (BD)- the catalog of over 300,000 stars.
1862 - Clark discovers Sirius B based on calculations by Bessel.
1860 - The beginning of spectral analysis of stars. (Huggins identifies elements in the spectra of Betelgeuse and Aldebaran).
1865 - Jules Verne publishes the story “From the Earth to the Moon”.
1867 - Description of Wolf-Rayet stars.
1868 - Jansen and Lockyer observe solar prominences.
1872 - The Bieliid meteor shower.
1877 - Hall discovers Martian satellites, Phobos and Deimos.
1877 - Schiaparelli observes the Martian canals.
1878 - The Great Red Spot on Jupiter becomes prominent.
1890 - Lockyer announces his theory of stellar evolution.
1890 - Vogel discovers spectroscopic binaries.
1894 - Percival Lowell founds the Flagstaff Observatory in Arizona.
1896 - The erection of a 33-inch refractor at Meudon.
1897 - The foundation of Yerkes Observatory.
1900 - Chaberlin and Moulton propose theory of the Solar System origin.
1901 - Appearance of Nova Persei.
1905 - Mount Wilson Observatory established exclusively for the study of the sun.
1905 - Einstein proposes the basis of the “Theory of Relativity”.
1908 - Hertzsprung describes giant and dwarf stars.
1908 - Leavitt discovers the relationship period - absolute magnitude for Cepheids.
1908 - 60 inch reflector erected at Mount Wilson.
1908 - 1908 A mysterious explosion rocked Central Siberia. Forest was destroyed for 70 miles. A shock wave and blinding light followed and then black sooty rain. People 40 miles away were “flash burned” and their silverware melted. There was no crater. What caused this? No one knows. Some speculate that it was an early atomic test, while others say it was a meteor.
1911 - Hertzsprung and Russell discover the relationship between the star spectral type and star absolute magnitude.
1914 - Goddard begins experiments with rockets.
1915 - Adams discovers White Dwarfs.
1916 - Eddington proposes the first premises of the theory of intrinsic star structure.
1916 - Einstein proposes his general “Theory of Relativity”.
1917 - Completion of the 100-inch Hooker reflector at Mount Wilson.
1918 - Shapley provides the first model of the Galaxy structure.
1918 - Cannon publishes the fundamental catalogue star spectra.
1919 - Barnard publishes the catalogue of dark nebulas.
1920 - Slipher announces discovery of Red Shifts in the spectra of galaxies.
1920 - The first direct measurement of star diameter using interpherometer.
1923 - Hubble proves that the galaxies lie beyond the Milky Way.
1926 - Goddard fires the first liquid fuel rocket.
1927 - Oort proves that the center of the galaxy lies in the direction of the Sagittarius.
1929 - Edwin Powell Hubble discovers that galaxies move away from each other.
1930 - Tombaugh discovers Pluto based on Lowell’s predictions.
1931 - Jansky discovers cosmic radio waves.
1937 - Reber constructs the first radio telescope.
1937 - Gamow proposes the first theory of stellar evolution.
1942 - Strand speculates that 61 Cygni is attended by a planet.
1944 - Van de Hulst suggests that interstellar hydrogen must emit radio waves at 21.1 cm.
1946 - Bay obtains the first radar images of the Moon.
1947 - Ambarcumian discovers star associations.
1949 - The completion of the Hale 200-inch reflector at Mount Palomar.
1951 - Ewen and Purcell discover the 21.1 cm hydrogen radio waves, originally predicted by van de Hulst.
1951 - Determination of the spiral structure of our galaxy.
1955 - Completion of the 250-foot radio telescope at Jodrell Bank.
1957 - October 4, The first artificial satellite launched by the Russians.
1958 - The first American satellite launched.
1959 - The Russian Luniks satellites: Lunik I passes the Moon; Lunik II lands on the Moon.
1959 - Radio location of the Sun.
1961 - April 12, Russian astronaut, Yuri Gargarin, becomes the first man in space.
1962 - First American orbital flight by John Glenn.
1962 - Planetary probes: Mars I (Russia) and Mariner II (USA)
1962 - Discovery of the first galactic source of X-ray radiation.
1963 - Van de Kamp reports a planet associated with Bernard’s Star.
1963 - Discovery of the first quasar (3C 273).
1964 - Close range pictures of the Moon from USA’s Ranger VII.
1965 - Penzias and Wilson discover cosmic fossil radiation, providing direct evidence of the Big Bang Theory.
1966 - First soft landing on the Moon (Luna 9 - Russia and Surveyor I - USA).
1966 - Russian probe lands on Venus.
1967 - Discovery of pulsar.
1968 - First manned flight around the Moon. Apollo 8. Astronauts: Borman, Lovell, and Anders.
1969 - February 8, a huge explosion rocked the town of Allende, Mexico. A meteor had exploded with great force in the atmosphere and rained down thousands of chunks to the Chihuahuan desert. More than 3 tons of fragments were collected.
1969 - September 28, more meteorites, this time in Murchison, Australia. The fragments from those collected provided the first evidence that amino acids exist elsewhere in the solar system!
1969 - July 20, First man on the Moon. Apollo 11. Astronauts: Armstrong and Aldrin.
1970 - Satellite Uhuru scans the sky in the X-ray range.
1970 - First successful soft landing on Venus (Venera 7, Russia).
1971 - Final testing of 236-inch Soviet reflector.
1971 - First probes in orbit around Mars and first soft landing on Mars (Mars 3, Russia).
1971 - First manned mechanical vehicle on the Moon (Apollo 15, USA).
1972 - Satellite Copernicus conducts spectroscopic ultraviolet observations of stars and interstellar matter with high resolution.
1972 - The first observations in gamma radiation range.
1972 - Launch of the probe Pioneer 10, it’s intended destination: Jupiter
1973 - Very first images of Jupiter. Pioneer 10 (USA).
1974 - First image of Mercury’s surface. Mariner 10 (USA).
1975 - Completion of the 6-meter telescope in Zielenczukskaja (USSR).
1976 - Soft landing of Viking space probes on Mars (USA).
1977 - Discovery of Uranus rings.
1978 - Discovery of Pluto’s moon.
1978 - New data on celestrial objects collected by satellite Einstein (X-ray).
1980 - First images of Saturn and its rings. Voyager 1 (USA).
1983 - Satellite IRAS scans the sky in infrared radiation.
1983 - Samples of a meteorite taken from the antarctic showed gases identical to those found on Mars. This is just too cool! The gas had been captured in small crystals and were compared to the gases collected in the 1970’s by the Viking spacecraft. Can you imagine the excitement of the scientists when they realized that this chunk of space debris had come from Mars??
1986 - January 24, Voyager 2 approaches the planet Urananus.
1986 - January 28, Space shuttle Challenger disaster
1986 - March, Space probes Vega 1, Vega 2, and Giotto pass near Halley’s Comet.
1987 - February 23, Supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud visible to naked eye, as a result of explosion of blue supergiant Sanduleak 69 deg. 202.
1989 - May 4, Magellan mission to radar map the surface Venus.
1989 - August 24, Voyager 2 approaches the planet Neptune.
1989 - September 12, Pluto at perihelion.
1989 - November 18, NASA launches Cosmic Background Explorer satelite.
1990 - April 24, The space shuttle Discovery puts the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit .
1990 - December 5, The first picture taken with Keck Telescope in Hawaii is published in Los Angeles Times.
1990 - December 7, Galileo approaches the planet Earth on the way from Venus to Jupiter. It becomes the first interplanetary spacecraft that has ever visited the Earth.
1991 - February 7, Debris of Russian Salyut 7 crashes through the atmosphere over Argentina.
1991 - April 5, The launch of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO)
1991 - July, A total eclipse of the Sun, visible from Hawaii and Mexico. Suddenly, astronomy is a marketable tourist commodity.
1991 - October, The spacecraft Galileo passes the asteroid Gaspra.
1992 - April, The Hubble Space Telescope photographs the hottests star ever recorded (temp. 360,000 degrees Fehrenheit). They were found in the Large Magellanic Cloud
1992 - April 24, The data received from satelite COBE proves the existence of temperature fluctuations in the background radiation which is a strong evidence supporting the Big Bang theory. This evidence is referred to as “The Holy Grail” of Astronomy.
1992 - September 16, The discovery of the first object orbiting the Sun beyond the planet Pluto.
1992 - September 25, NASA launches the Mars Observer spacecraft.
1992 - October 31, The Vatican announces that the Catholic Church erred in condemning Galileo’s beliefs. Yay!!!!!!!!!!!
1993 - January 31, The Gamma Ray Observatory detects the brightest burst of gamma rays ever recorded - the Super Bowl Burst.
1993 - March 28, Outburst of supernova in the M81 galaxy in Ursa Major.
1993 - August 21, NASA loses contact with Mars Observer three days before its planned entry into Mars’ atmosphere.
1993 - December, Astronauts of the space shuttle Endeavour correct the defects in the Hubble Space Telescope, improving the images.
1994 - July 20, Comet Shoemaker-Levy crashes into Jupiter. This is considered by many, the most spectacular event in the history of astronomy. Of course, they didn’t live in 1803 or forgot about 1969 (see above).
1995 - December 7, Galileo reaches the planet Jupiter.

What is an asteroid?
Movies such as Armageddon create fear in our minds that the world is going to end soon due to a collision by an asteroid. But what are these lethal objects? Here are some asteroid facts:

1. They are usually composed of an iron-nickel material
2. Some asteroids can have other asteroids in orbit around them, such as Ida and its moon Dactyl!
3. Asteroids are not smooth. They are marred by impact craters and dust.
4. Asteroids that orbit the sun are called “Near-Earth Asteroids”.
5. Recently, the public was sent into a panic when scientists reported that, in 2028 and 2030, the Earth would be struck by an asteroid. However, after further analysis, they blushingly admitted the asteroids would miss Earth by several million miles. The Torino Scale was developed to alert the public and to cut down on the panic by misinformation (see more about the scale, below)
6. On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid.
7. The Voyager 1 and 2 spacecrafts flew through the asteroid belt without being hit by asteroids.
8. The asteroid belt occurs between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
9. It is thought that, had it not been for the gravitational pull of Jupiter, the asteroid belt would have formed another planet.
10. Large asteroids are called planetoids.
11. A Chicago fire theory is that asteroids caused the fires, not a lantern that was tipped over by a cow.
12. Asteroid KY26 is the fastest known spinning object in the solar system, completely rotating every 10.7 minutes. It was recently discovered that this asteroid contains 1 million gallons of water! You would not want to try to stand on this asteroid, though, because its gravity would not keep you from being flung off into space.

The Torino Scale:
The scale is broken down into colors, each color having a further division.
0 (white) - The likelihood of a collision is zero, or well below the chance that a random object of the same size will strike the earth within the next few decades. This designation also applies to any small object that, in the event of a collision, is unlikely to reach the Earth’s surface intact.
1 (green) - The chance of collison is extremely unlikely, about the same as a random object of the same size striking earth within the next few decades.
2 (yellow) - A somewhat close, but not unusual encounter. Collision is very likely.
3 (yellow) -A close encounter, with 1% or greater chance of a collision capable of causing localized destruction
4 (yellow) - A close encounter, with 1% or greater chance of a collision capable of causing regional devastation.
5 (orange) - A close encounter, with a significant threat of a collision capable of causing regional devastation.
6 (orange) - A close encounter, with a significant threat of a collision capable of causing global catastrophe.
7 (orange) - A close encounter, with an extremely significant threat of a collision capable of causing global catastrophe.
8 (red) - A collision capable of causing localized destruction. Such events occur somewhere on Earth between once per 50 years and once per 1,000 years.
9 (red) - A collision capable of causing regional devastation. Such events occur between once per 1,000 years and once per 100,000 years.
10 (red) - A collision capable of causing global climatic catastrophe. Such events occur once every 100,000 years or less often.